Argument, Rhetoric, and Persuasion

PREFACE:  One of the three questions on the English Language and Composition Examination will always be a defend, challenge, or qualify question.   All educated people need to learn how to form good argument.  Most training for this comes from two sources:  The Aristotle Model and the Toulmin Model.  Both are presented here briefly.  In addition, Huxley's description of the "Scientific Method" will round out the background knowledge needed to write good argument/persuasion papers.

Exercise One:

The first step in learning how to do well on this essay is to be able to ask the following questions when asked to evaluate logical appeals:

LOGOS

The Aristotle Model:

1.  What arguments (logical reasoning) are made?
2.  Do the examples used meet the USA ARR's Test (Are the examples unified, specific, adequate, accurate, relative, and representative?)
3.  Does the author represent the important opposing arguments fairly?  This is usually mentioned early, then refuted throughout the remainder of the essay by confirmation and amplification.
4.  Does the author use  specific examples, detailed description, quotations from authorities, facts, statistics, etc. that meet the USA AR's test?
5.  Does the author's use of amplification (widening of perspectives through analogies, comparisons or other aspects of experience) meet the USA AR's test?
6.  Are there any omissions?

The Stephen Toulmin Model:

Another way to evaluate the logic of the argument is to apply the six structural elements proposed by Stephen Toulmin in his book The Uses of Argument.  Here they are, converted into evaluation questions:

1.  The Claim:  What is the assertion that the writer is trying to justify in the argument?
2.  The Grounds:  What are the facts on which the argument is based?
3.  The Warrant:  Is the claim legitimate based on the grounds?
4.  The Backing:  What additional support is needed to establish the warrant?
5.  The Modal Qualifier:  Is the leap from the facts to the warrant justified?
6.  The Rebuttal: On what basis would the leap from grounds to claim appear to be illegitimate.

Illogical Fallacies

Does the writer (speaker or presenter) misuse the evidence or sabotage or distort the argument by relying on any of the following illogical fallacies:

Hasty Generalization - Also called "the Bare Assertion."  Be suspicious of any unsubstantiated conclusions. Don't be swayed by a speaker who refuses to back up a disputed claim by simply saying or implying "That's just the way it is." Any sound generalization must be based on a great deal of evidence (many examples of personal experience, observations, or reading).

Stereotype - Do not allow a writer (speaker or presenter) to convince you that all members of a certain group share certain characteristics just because they are members of that group.   People should be judged on their individual merits (many examples of personal experience, observations, or reading), not on their group identities.

Cause-and-Effect Fallacy - Avoid the mistake of assuming that just because one event preceded another, the first event caused the second event.  Any sound generalization about effect must be based on a great deal of evidence (many cause/effect observations from personal experience, observations, or reading).

Only Cause Fallacy - Most situations are complex enough to have several causes.  Be open-minded enough to be able to see that more than one cause is possible, and that, similarly, more than one solution exists.  Almost no dispute among intelligent people can be boiled down to "It's as simple as that."

False analogy -Analogies are used to clarify a point.  Because false analogies are weak or far-fetched examples, they usually confuse the message.  All analogies selected must clearly clarify the point.

Non sequitur -  The statement means:  "It does not follow."  Make sure the conclusion logically follows from the premise.

Circular reasoning - This common mistake occurs when no specific reasons are given to back up an opinion.  Instead, the writer simply restates the and rephrases the same position.  Assertions must be developed with a series of different examples from personal experience, observations, or reading.

Begging the question -This occurs when the writer expects the reader to accept a position just because everyone else accepts it.  Assertions must be developed through a balance of good logic and plausible appeals to emotions.

Exercise Two:

To understand logos better, carefully read The Method of Scientific Investigation by Thomas Huxley.  This famous nineteenth century lecture on the scientific method is linked here because of its well-written explanations of the logical processes of induction and deduction.  Summarize these logical processes in your own words.  Apply Huxleyís theories when evaluating the effectiveness of any argument's logic.  (Click on The Method of Scientific Investigation to get the full article.)

Exercise Three:
Read the information below to learn how to evaluate emotional appeals.
PATHOS -

1.  Does the author arouse desires useful to the persuader's purpose and demonstrate how these desires can be satisfied by acceptance of the persuaderís assertion (proposition or proposal or claim)?
2.  Does the author's summary include an arousal of indignation for the opponentís view, and an arousal of sympathy for the speaker/writer's view?
3.  Does the author (speaker or presenter) misuse the language by trying to persuade you emotionally through any of the following dishonest propaganda techniques:

Loaded Words - Be aware of the strong negative or positive connotations that certain words carry with them.  This technique is also known as using "slanted words" because the speaker or writer will choose words because of their persuasive emotional charge.  Bertrand Russell once illustrated how words have emotional bias when he chose three synonyms to define different emotional aspects of the word stubborn.  "I am firm.  You are obstinate.    He is pigheaded."

Glittering Generalities - This is a specific type of loaded word fallacy.  Do not be swayed by words that are so overly positive that you feel good just hearing them.  Do not reach a descision based solely on diction.

Band Wagon - Do not come to a decision just because you do not want to be left out.  These are also called "appeals to popular sentiment" because they are used to seduce the reader or listener into a smiling, mindless agreement.

Plain-Folks Appeal - When the speaker tries to acknowledge the opposition by pretending to be just like all common people, he is using this appeal.

Snob Appeal- When the speaker tries to associate himself/herself with beautiful, wealthy, or special people, he/she is using this appeal.

Testimonial -When a speaker uses an association with a famous person to sell an idea or product, he/she is using this propaganda technique.

Exercise Four:

Mark Twain wrote the essay, The Art of Lying,  then read it at the Historical and Antiquarian Club of Hartford as an entrant for a thirty dollar prize.  He did not win the prize.

Read the essay.  Then write a carefully reasoned essay evaluating Mark Twain's arguments about the "decay of the art of writing." You might consider Twain's unusual use of both logical and emotional appeals, his conscious creation of irony and humor,  as well as his conscious use of some of the illogical fallacies defined here.  (Click on The Art of Lying, to get the full speech.  NOTE:  This includes a full 9 point checklist to guide the writing and the grading of this essay.)

Exercise Five:
Read the information below to learn how writers should attempt to establish their credentials.
ETHOS -

1.  Does the writer use a reasonable tone, treating the opponent  with respect by avoiding such things as illogical statements or inflammatory language?
2.  Does the writer have some relevant experience with the issue?
3.  Does the writer seem to have any prejudicial attitudes, sentiments, or stereotypes?
4.  Does the writer make an attempt to embody some evidence of personal knowledge of the subject, good will toward the reader/audience, good sense, perspective,  taste in judgment, or disinterest in personal benefit?
5.  Note the features of the writer's style:  sentences or vocabulary which was effective, too simple, or too difficult . . .  Where was the writing clear?  Where was it difficult to track? Where was the language appropriate or inappropriate for the intended audience?

Exercise Six:

Carefully read the following anonymous editorial from The Iowa City Press-Citizen  published in December 1985 after Dale Burr, a 63 year old farmer, faced with the loss of his farm because he could no longer repay his loans, shot the bank president, his wife, and himself.  Then write a carefully reasoned essay evaluating the argument for reaching out to suffering farmers.  Notice how the writer establishes a favorable rapport (ethos) with the reader by balancing logical and emotional appeals with an excellent  manipulation of syntax, repetition, and other stylistic devices.  (Click on editorial from The Iowa City Press-Citizen   to get the full text.  Note:  A guiding checklist is included.)

Exercise Seven:

This unit provides a number of models to follow:  examples of argument and persuasion written by authors of literary merit.  Ask the following questions of these models to begin to understand what makes a good persuasive essay.

Carefully read the following specches/essays that follow.  Evaluate their arguments by asking the following questions:

1.  What is the assertion (proposition or claim) made by the author?  State this in your own words.

2.   What is your initial position on the issue?  Do you have any prejudicial attitudes,  sentiments, or stereotypes?

3.  What logical appeals are made by the author?

4.  What emotional appeals are made by the author?

5.  Has the writer presented the material in an ethical manner?

6.  Did the article change or modify your initial position on the subject?

Exercise Eight:
Leadership in the Nineties
Dan Rather

This speech was delivered in the J. W. Marriott Hotel in Washington, D. C.,  on April 6, 1990, at a luncheon meeting during a three-day convention for the highly influential American Society of Newspaper Editors.  The ASNE is influential because its members determine editorial and news policy on daily newspapers and four wire services throughout the United States and Canada.  Read Dan Ratherís speech carefully.  Then write a well-organized essay which evaluates the effectiveness of Dan Rather's plea to change editorial and news policy.  Click on Leadership in the Nineties to access the full speech.  (Note:  A guiding checklist is included.)

Exercise Nine:
The Purpose of the Spectator Papers
Joseph Addison

The Spectator, a popular periodical which appeared between 1711 and 1712, increased its circulation from three thousand in its beginning to as many as twenty thousand copies of certain issues.  The periodical was like a newspaper in that it was issued daily and contained advertisements and classified ads.  It was different from our modern day newspapers in that the ads were of Wanted, Lost or Stolen, Amusements, and Merchandise;  the writing was of a more polished form;   and each issue had only one article.  The Spectator also was different from today in that its various issues were dedicated to any one of the following Club members:  a lawyer, a merchant, an ex-army captain, an elderly gallant, and a country baronet.

The Spectator lasted through five hundred and fifty-five numbers.

The following editorial appeared in The Spectator, No. 10.  Rather than defining the purpose of his publication, he is really trying to convince more people in London and Westminster  to order this paper daily "for their own good . . .   to be punctually served . . . as a part of their tea equipage."  Read the selection carefully.  Then write a carefully reasoned essay that evaluates the effectiveness of Joseph Addison's persuasion.

Click on The Purpose of the Spectator Papers  to access the full speech.  (Note: A guiding checklist is included.)

Exercise Ten:
The Education of Women
from An Essay Upon Projects
Daniel DeFoe

Daniel Defoe wrote what is considered to be the first novel written in English--Robinson Crusoe(1719).  He also wrote several other novels including Moll Flanders(1722).  This excerpt comes from  An Essay Upon Projects--a book of essays dealing with subjects such as the education of women, roads, banks, jails, asylums, insurance, income tax?subjects which created controversy in Defoe's life.  He seemed to always be in trouble because of his opinions.  Read the following excerpt on the education of women.  Then write a well-organized essay which evaluates the effectiveness of Daniel Defoe's championship of the education of women with his 18th Century, male  audience.

Click on The Education of Women to access the full speech.  (Note:  A guiding checklist is included.)

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Use the Checklist for Essays that Defend, Challenge, or Qualify to guide the reflective thinking, writing and grading of your essay.